Scriptures

The oldest Veda: about 1,028 hymns in ten mandalas, praising Agni, Indra, Varuna and other deities. It contains the Gayatri Mantra and the Nasadiya Sukta on creation.

The Veda of sacrifice: mantras and prose formulas recited by the priest performing yajna. It survives in two branches, the Shukla (White) and Krishna (Black) Yajurveda.

The Veda of melody: verses, mostly drawn from the Rigveda, set to chants sung during rituals. It is regarded as the root of Indian classical music.

The Veda of everyday life: hymns and prayers for health, healing, protection, marriage, prosperity and peace, alongside deep philosophical passages.

Just 18 verses from the Shukla Yajurveda, opening with "Isha vasyam idam sarvam" — all this is pervaded by the Lord. It teaches how to act in the world without attachment.

From the Samaveda, named after its first word "kena" — "by whom?" It asks what power makes the mind think and the eyes see, and includes the story of the gods humbled by Brahman.

From the Krishna Yajurveda: the boy Nachiketa questions Yama, the lord of death, about what lies beyond death. Several of its verses reappear in the Bhagavad Gita.

From the Atharvaveda: six seekers put six questions to the sage Pippalada — on the origin of beings, prana (life-force), sleep and dreams, and meditation on Om.

From the Atharvaveda, distinguishing lower knowledge (of the world) from higher knowledge (of the Imperishable). India's national motto "Satyameva Jayate" comes from this text.

The shortest principal Upanishad — 12 verses on Om and the four states of consciousness: waking, dreaming, deep sleep and turiya, the pure awareness beyond them.

From the Krishna Yajurveda, famous for the five sheaths (pancha kosha) of the self and the graduation advice "Satyam vada, dharmam chara" — speak the truth, follow dharma.

From the Rigveda, describing creation and the nature of consciousness. It contains the great saying "Prajnanam Brahma" — consciousness is Brahman.

One of the largest Upanishads, from the Samaveda. Here the sage Uddalaka teaches his son Shvetaketu "Tat tvam asi" — you are That.

The largest Upanishad, from the Shukla Yajurveda, featuring the sage Yajnavalkya's dialogues with Maitreyi and Gargi. It contains "Aham Brahmasmi" and the prayer "Asato ma sadgamaya."

From the Krishna Yajurveda, notable for its devotional tone: it speaks of a personal Lord, identified with Rudra-Shiva, and is one of the earliest texts to mention bhakti.

The Adi Kavya (first poem) by Maharishi Valmiki: about 24,000 verses in seven kandas telling the life of Shri Ram, Sita's abduction by Ravana, and the ideal of dharma in every relationship.

Ved Vyasa's epic of roughly 100,000 verses in 18 parvas — the struggle between the Pandavas and Kauravas. Tradition says "what is not here is found nowhere."

The thousand names of Vishnu, taught by Bhishma to Yudhishthira from his bed of arrows in the Mahabharata's Anushasana Parva — one of the most widely chanted stotras.

Also called the Adi (first) Purana. It covers creation and describes sacred places, especially Puri in Odisha and the banks of the Godavari.

One of the largest Puranas, organised in khandas. It glorifies Vishnu and describes pilgrimages, vratas such as Ekadashi, and the sanctity of Tulsi.

Taught by the sage Parashara to Maitreya: creation, the stories of Dhruva and Prahlad, the avatars of Vishnu and the life of Shri Krishna.

The glory of Lord Shiva: the twelve Jyotirlingas, the marriage of Shiva and Parvati, the births of Ganesh and Kartikeya, and the ways of Shiva worship.

The great text of devotion, narrated by Shukadeva to King Parikshit in 12 skandhas. Its tenth skandha tells Shri Krishna's life, and it is recited at Bhagavat Saptah kathas.

A Vaishnava Purana centred on devotion to Vishnu, dharma and vratas. It is also valued for containing summaries of all eighteen Puranas.

Narrated through the sage Markandeya. It contains the Devi Mahatmya (Durga Saptashati), the foundational text of goddess worship.

Told by Agni to the sage Vasishtha — an encyclopedia covering rituals, temple architecture, medicine, grammar, poetics and statecraft.

"The Purana of the future": it contains prophecies about coming ages, along with vratas, festivals and the worship of Surya.

Presents Shri Krishna as the Supreme and Radha as his divine energy, and describes the goddesses as forms of Prakriti.

Explains the Shiva Linga — beginning with the endless pillar of light that Brahma and Vishnu could not measure — and the practice of Shaiva worship.

Narrated by Vishnu in his Varaha (boar) form to Bhudevi, the Earth goddess — on Vishnu worship, vratas and sacred places such as Mathura.

The largest Purana, named after Kartikeya (Skanda). It is a vast guide to India's tirthas, including the Kashi Khanda, and is the source of the Satyanarayan Katha.

Centred on Vishnu's Vamana avatar, who measured the three worlds in three steps and humbled King Bali; it also includes stories of Shiva.

Narrated by Vishnu as the Kurma (tortoise) avatar. It honours both Vishnu and Shiva and contains the Ishvara Gita.

Told by Vishnu as the Matsya (fish) avatar to Manu during the great flood. It is an important source on iconography, temple building and royal dynasties.

A dialogue between Vishnu and Garuda. Its Preta Khanda on death, the afterlife and funeral rites is traditionally read during the days of mourning.

Named after the cosmic egg (brahmanda), it describes the universe and its geography. It contains the Lalita Sahasranama and the Adhyatma Ramayana.

The oldest and most influential Dharma Shastra, attributed to Manu, covering personal duties, the stages of life, rites and social law. Parts of it are widely criticised today.

A concise, well-organised law text in three parts — conduct, legal procedure and penance. Its commentary, the Mitakshara, shaped Hindu inheritance law.

A Dharma Shastra traditionally said to be meant especially for the Kali Yuga, with simpler rules for conduct and penance.

Phonetics — the correct pronunciation, accent and rhythm of Vedic mantras.

Prosody — the metres of Vedic verse such as Gayatri and Anushtubh, systematised in Pingala's Chhandas Sutra.

Grammar — above all Panini's Ashtadhyayi, one of the most precise descriptions of any language ever written.

Etymology — explaining the meanings of difficult Vedic words, best known through Yaska's Nirukta.

Astronomy and timekeeping — fixing the right times for rituals from the movements of the sun and moon; the basis of the Panchang.

Ritual procedure — the Shrauta, Grihya, Dharma and Shulba Sutras governing sacrifices, household rites (samskaras), conduct and altar geometry.

The science of life and health, preserved in classics such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita.

The science of archery and warfare — the training of warriors like Arjun and Karna.

The science of music and dance, closely linked to the Samaveda and later to Bharata's Natya Shastra.

The science of architecture and building, including Vastu Shastra and the principles of temple construction.

By Gautama (Akshapada): the school of logic, setting out the valid means of knowledge and the rules of sound reasoning and debate.

By Kanada: analyses reality into categories (padarthas) and teaches that matter is made of indivisible atoms (paramanu).

By Ishvarakrishna, the classic text of Samkhya: reality as pure consciousness (purusha) and nature (prakriti) with its three gunas.

196 sutras defining yoga as the stilling of the mind's fluctuations, and setting out the eight limbs (ashtanga) from yama and niyama to samadhi.

By Jaimini: rules for interpreting the Vedas and performing Vedic ritual correctly, with dharma as their central concern.

By Badarayana (traditionally Ved Vyasa): 555 sutras systematising the Upanishads' teaching on Brahman — the foundation text of every Vedanta school.

Twenty-eight principal Agamas of Shaiva Siddhanta, guiding Shiva worship and temple ritual, especially in South Indian temples.

The Vaishnava Agamas of the Pancharatra tradition, governing the worship of Vishnu in many temples, including Sri Rangam.

An ancient Vaishnava ritual tradition attributed to the sage Vikhanasa, followed in temples such as Tirumala Tirupati.

Scriptures centred on the Divine Mother (Shakti), describing her forms, mantras, yantras and methods of worship.

Goswami Tulsidas's 16th-century retelling of the Ramayana in Awadhi, in seven kands — the most widely read Ram katha in North India.

The fifth kand of the Ramayana, telling Hanuman's leap to Lanka and his meeting with Sita. Its recitation is a popular form of Hanuman worship.

Also called the Devi Mahatmya or Chandi Path: 700 verses in 13 chapters from the Markandeya Purana, telling the Goddess's victories over Mahishasura and other demons. Recited especially in Navratri.

A spiritual retelling of the Ramayana, framed as a dialogue between Shiva and Parvati, presenting Ram as the Supreme Self. It is part of the Brahmanda Purana.

The sage Vasishtha's teaching to the young Shri Ram, who has grown disillusioned with the world — told through many stories, on the nature of mind and liberation.

Jayadeva's 12th-century Sanskrit poem on the love of Radha and Krishna, still sung in the Jagannath temple at Puri and in classical dance.